The Brownian Motion

In 1827, Robert Brown observed through the microscope that some pollen grains suspended in water were moving constantly and randomly in no specific direction. The Brownian Motion was observed not only in pollen grains but also in other small particles such as dust and smoke particles. When smoke particles in the air were view through a microscope under the bright light, they were seen as bright points moving about constantly and randomly with no specific directions in the air. It was aboout eighty years later, 1905 that Albert Einstein came up with a theory to explain Brownian Motion. Another scientist Jean Baptiste Perrin, carried out experiments to show that Einstein's theory could better explain the movement of particles. Einstein explained that the pollen grains in the water moved constantly and randomly because they were bombarded all around by water particles which themselves were moving constantly and randomly. Remember that although the pollen grains are microscopic, the water particles are even smaller and cannot be observed with a normal microscope. Similarly, tiny air particles which are moving constantly and randomly bombard or hit the larger smoke or dust particles in the air in all directions, causing the jittery motions of the smoke and dust particles.

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion

http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/Applets/brownian/brownian.html

http://http//xanadu.math.utah.edu/java/brownianmotion/1/

Definition of The Particulate Model of Matter

What is the Particulate Model of Matter? Based on the evidence gathered from observations and experiments, scientists proposed a model which explains the nature of matter. This model is called the Particulate Model of Matter. Tje Particulate Model of Matter states that matter is made of tiny discrete particles, which are in constant and random motion. About 2500 years ago, the greek philosopher, Democritus (460 B.C. - 370 B.C), proposed that if one were to break up matter into smaller and smaller pieces, there would come to a point when it could no longer be divided further. He called this smallest indivisible bit of matter 'atom'. On the other hand, another famous philosopher, Aristotle (384 B.C - 322 B.C), proposed that matter has a continuous composition and that it can be broken down into smaller and smaller pieces forever. After the Brownian Motion ( particles in pollen grains that moved constantly and randomly in no specific directions ) was explained by Elbert Einstein and demonstrated by Jean Baptiste Perrin, in other words, Democritus' proposal that matter is made up of tiny particles is indeed right.

References:

http://http//mackenzie.vsb.bc.ca/G7Science/117.pdf

http://http//wiki.answers.com/Q/Particle_model_of_matter

Osmosis

Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane. More specifically, it is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high water potential (low solute concentration) to an area of low water potential (high solute concentration). It is a physical process in which a solvent moves, without input of energy, across a semi-permeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations. Osmosis releases energy, and can be made to do work, as when a growing tree root splits a stone. For example, if you put an animal cell into a beaker of water and observe it after a few hours, the cell would likely swell up and finally burst. This is because, Osmosis has occured and made the water pass through the semi/partially permeable membrane of the animal cell, causing it to swell up as water has been absorbed and finally bursts.

Reference:

http://http//www.tvdsb.on.ca/WESTMIN/science/sbi3a1/cells/Osmosis.html

http://http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosis

Diffusion

What is Diffusion? Diffusion is the process in which molecules from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration by random molecular motion. The result of diffusion is a gradual mixing of material. In a phase with uniform temperature, absent external net forces acting on the particles, the diffusion process will eventually result in complete mixing or a state of equilibrium. Basically, it is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to a lower area. Molecular diffusion is typically described mathematically using Fick's laws. For example a cube of sugar being dropped into a beaker containing water. The sugar molecules, being the region of higher concentration, diffused into the water, being the region of lower concentration. Now the sugar has been dissolved into the water, or as we might say, diffused. If you want to view the video demonstration of diffusion please visit this site: http://http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_diffusion_works.html

References:
http://http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__how_diffusion_works.html
http://http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_diffusion
Glossary:
Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion and can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient, D. They were derived by Adolf Fick in the year 1855.

What are Atoms, Molecules and Ions ?

In mathematical logic, an atomic formula (also known simply as an atom) is a formula with no deeper propositional structure, that is, a formula that contains no logical connectives or equivalently a formula that has no strict subformulas. Atoms are thus the simplest well-formed formulas of the logic. Compound formulas are formed by combining the atomic formulas using the logical connectives. In a sense, the atoms are like the 26 letters of the alphabet that join together in different combinations to form the immense number of words in our language. molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable, electrically neutral group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by very strong (covalent) chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from polyatomic ions in this strict sense. In organic chemistry and biochemistry, the term molecule is used less strictly and also is applied to charged organic molecules and biomolecules. An ion is an atom or molecule where the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge.

References:

http://http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion

http://http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule

http://http//wps.prenhall.com/esm_brown_chemistry_9/0,4647,169289-,00.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_(logic)

Glossary:

Covalent - Very strong

Polyatomic Ions - two or more atoms covalently bonded or of a metal complex that can be considered as acting as a single unit in the context of acid and base chemistry or in the formation of salts.

What causes Leukemia?

Leukemia is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an abnormal proliferation (production by multiplication) of blood cells, usually white blood cells (leukocytes). Leukemia is a broad term covering a spectrum of diseases. In turn, it is part of the even broader group of diseases called hematological neoplasms. Currently, no one knows the cause of Leukemia, but there are certain factors and risk we should be looking out for.

• Radiation- The term "radiation" refers to various forms of energy, such as X rays and ultraviolet (UV) light found in sunlight. Radiation can tear chemicals apart, thus damaging or destroying cells. Some researchers believe that exposure to radiation can cause some forms of leukemia.


• Chemicals- Some types of chemicals are known to be carcinogens (pronounced car-SIN-o-genz). A carcinogen is anything that can cause cancer. Chemicals can cause cancer by damaging cells and the substances within them.


• Viruses- Some researchers believe that some types of leukemia are viral infections. A virus is a very small organism that can cause a disease. The link between viruses and leukemia is strong in some cases, but it has not been proved.


• Genetics- Leukemia tends to occur in some families more commonly than in others. This suggests that at least some forms of leukemia may be hereditary.

References:

http://http//www.faqs.org/health/Sick-V3/Leukemia.html

http://http//www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/142595.php
Glossary:

Hematological Neoplasms- the types of cancer that affect blood, bone marrow, and lymph nodes.

What happens when there is a blood blockage in the coronary arteries?

The arteries that bring blood to the heart muscle (coronary arteries) can become clogged by plaque (a buildup of fat, cholesterol and other substances). This can slow or stop blood flow through the heart's blood vessels, leading to chest pain or a heart attack. Increasing blood flow to the heart muscle can relieve chest pain and reduce the risk of heart attack.
If you are suffering chest pain or other symptoms that may indicate a cardiovascular problem, undergo an angiogram (cardiac catheterization) to see if your coronary arteries are blocked by plaque. A blockage can cause a decrease in the supply of blood and oxygen to the heart and over time can lead to debilitating chest pain or a heart attack. Plaque material consists of fat, cholesterol, calcium and a variety of other cellular components like smooth muscle cells and blood cells. The deposition of this material occurs almost throughout life, starting even during childhood in many people. As this deposition progresses, the lumen gradually narrows and the blood flow is limited. The plaque material can also be somewhat brittle and fragile. Sometimes, the plaque cracks or fractures causing an acute obstruction with a sudden build-up of platelets which completely closes the lumen and flow ceases altogether. Most commonly, a heart attack then ensues.

References:

http://http//www.slrctsurgery.com/cabs.html

http://http//www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/coronary_artery_bypass_grafting.html

Glossary:

Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels (arteries and veins).
Cardiac catheterization (heart cath) is the insertion of a catheter into a chamber or vessel of the heart. This is done for both investigational and interventional purposes.

What are the contents of our blood?

Normally, 7-8% of human body weight is from blood. In adults, this amounts to 4-5 quarts of blood. This essential fluid carries out the critical functions of transporting oxygen and nutrients to our cells and getting rid of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and other waste products. In addition, it plays a vital role in our immune system and in maintaining a relatively constant body temperature. Blood is a highly specialized tissue composed of many different kinds of components. Four of the most important ones are red cells, white cells, platelets, and plasma.

Red cells- or erythrocytes , are relatively large microscopic cells without nuclei.

White cells- or leukocytes , exist in variable numbers and types but make up a very small part of blood's volume--normally only about 1% in healthy people.

Platelets- or thrombocytes , are cell fragments without nuclei that work with blood clotting chemicals at the site of wounds.

Plasma- the relatively clear liquid water (92+%), sugar, fat, protein and salt solution which carries the red cells, white cells, platelets, and some other chemicals.

References:

http://http//anthro.palomar.edu/blood/blood_components.htm

http://sciencespot.net/Media/FrnsScience/bloodbasicscard1.pdf

Glossary:

Ammonia- a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3.

What are blood vessels?

The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body. There are three not major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart, the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the back towards the heart.The arteries and veins have the same basic structure. There are three layers, from inside to outside while the capillaries have only one thick cell. Capillaries consist of little more than a layer of endothelium and occasional connective tissue.

References:

http://http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessels
http://http//www.diabetes.org/diabetesdictionary.jsp

Glossary:

Endothelium- the thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall.

What causes heart failure?

All of us lose some blood-pumping ability in our hearts as we age, but heart failure results from the added stress of health conditions that either damage the heart or make it work too hard.
All of the lifestyle factors that increase your risk of heart attack and stroke – smoking, being overweight, eating foods high in fat and cholesterol and physical inactivity – can also contribute to heart failure. Below are some of the conditions that lead to heart failure;

• Coronary artery disease - This happens when fatty deposits and cholesterol build up in your heart's arteries. This will prevent the blood from flowing through the vessels and less blood will enter the heart. This will result in either a chest pain ( Angina ) or a heart attack. Coronary artery disease can also contribute to high blood pressure which overtime can lead to heart failure.


• Diabetes - Diabetes increases the risk for developing heart failure. diabetes tend to develop hypertension and atherosclerosis from elevated lipid levels in the blood — both of which have been linked to heart failure.


• Abnormal heart valves - Heart valve problems can result from disease, infection (endocarditis) or a defect present at birth. When the valves don't open or close completely during each heartbeat, the heart muscle has to pump harder to keep the blood moving. If the workload becomes too great, heart failure results.

References:

http://http//www.heartfailure.org/eng_site/hf_causes.asp
http://http//www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=324

Glossary:
Endocarditis- an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart, the endocardium. It usually involves the heart valves (native or prosthetic valves).

Angina- chest pain due to ischemia (a lack of blood and hence oxygen supply) of the heart muscle.

Atherosclerosis- is the condition in which an artery wall thickens as the result of a build-up of fatty materials such as cholesterol.